Cotton | A millenary history

All varieties of cotton (botanical name ″Gossypium″) grew originally in the desert zones of both the old and the new world. The cotton fibre was used probably at the end of the stone age in both hemispheres, to manufacture strings and maybe also fishing nets.

The time at which the real cotton growing started is not known, but from the remnants found at Cuzco (Peru) it was deduced that cotton spinning and dyeing date back to at least 2500 years ago; the excavations carried out in the village of Mohen Daro (Pakistan) gave evidence that cotton spinning and weaving were known already in 3000 B.C. Other archaeological finds prove that the Aztecs in Mexico and the Olmecs in central America, beside the Incas and their ancestors in the Andes produced cotton fabrics with very nice and complex designs which date back to over 2000 years ago.

The word ″cotton″ comes from the Arabic ″Katun″ which means plant of the conquered lands, with reference to the invasion of India by Alexander the Great in 327 BC. Several cotton fabrics still today bear the names of Asiatic and European towns, as well as of sea harbours situated along the cotton sea routes to Europe. Thus e.g. the term ″satin″ originates from the Arab name of the Chinese town Tseutung (Canton, today), the very popular ″denim″ from the French town Nimes, the name ″poplin″ from the papal city of Avignon and the name ″lisle″ from the French town Lille.

The cotton plant, as it originates from the desert, needs much sunlight and a warm climate; consequently it cannot be grown in Western Europe, except for Greece and Spain.

Production and consumption

The major cotton producing countries are at present China, the United States (the renowned ″cotton belt″ where the celebrated ″U.S. Upland″ cotton is being produced embracing several States: Texas, California, Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Arizona and New Mexico), followed by CIS, India and Pakistan. According to a recent report of I.C.A.C. (International Cotton Advisory Committee), the world production of raw cotton in the harvest 1998-99 is estimated at around 18,3 million tons, recording a drop against previous years, while world consumption is predicted to remain at about 19,3 million tons (a rather stabile value).

The main exporting countries of raw cotton are the USA and the CIS (in the first place the state of Uzbekistan, followed by Turkmenistan and Tajikistan).

Cotton is mostly imported by those countries which, although having no possibility to grow it, have within their borders a more or less well developed textile industry. Typical countries are Italy, which in the biennium 1998-99 imported 355.000 tons of cotton, Germany (135.000 tons) and Portugal (174.000 tons). Russia too is a big cotton importer.

The major raw cotton producer countries (1997-1998 harvest)

In the Far East, the major raw cotton importer countries are Japan (278,000 tons, again in the year 1998-99), South Korea (275,000 tons), Thailand (315,000 tons) and Indonesia (386,000 tons). Even China imported about 400.000 tons of cotton.

These figures correspond in most cases to the consumption volumes.

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The cotton plant | Fibre characteristics

In ancient times the cotton plant was a perennial big shrub which bore fruits at all seasons; in time and after careful selections, almost in every country it has become a more or less branched out plant which is sown every year, grows and crops in 5 to 6 months.

The blooming takes place eight weeks after sowing, after few days the white and yellow flowers fall, leaving the boll which contains the seeds, around which the fibre fluff develops. In the subsequent weeks the capsule boll grows up to the size of a hen egg and bursts, releasing the white and bright cotton fibre which will continue to ripen until the harvesting time.

The cotton fluffs are picked either mechanically or manually and brought to the ginning room, where special machines called ″gins″ complete the separation of the fibres from the seed. The fibre mass is tightly compressed into bales, hence the term ″raw cotton″ used for this fibre. At this point the seeds are separated from the shorter cotton fibrils named ″linters″, which are used for the production of valuable artificial fibres, as we shall see later on.

From the botanical point of view, there are four basic species of cotton: Gossypium arboreum, herbaceum, hirsutum and barbadense. The first two species yield short staple, the third medium staple and the fourth long and extralong staple cottons (the term ″staple″ identifies the fibre length). In this connection we have to remind the prestigious varieties called ELS (extra-long staple), which are grown in relatively small quantities in Egypt, Sudan, Israel, USA and Peru. The staple length is one of the most decisive characteristics of the cotton fibre because the longer the staple length, the finer the spinnable yarn count. According to the official American standards, the staple lengths are divided into four ranges:

- below 0.99" : short staple

- 0.99" to 1.10": medium staple - 1.11 " to 1.26": long staple

- over 1.26": extra-long staple.

Fibre characteristics

The cotton fibre is characterised by the presence of a cavity in its interior, named ″lumen″. The quality assessment of the cotton fibres is based on following characteristics:

· staple length

· cross-section size, usually called fineness

· linear mass

The spinnability of a fibre, i.e. the finest yarn count attainable in spinning, depends on the length and on the fineness, while the yarn tenacity is related to the strength of the individual fibres as well as to the number of fibres in the yarn cross-section, which has to range between 90 and 120.

The fibre fineness is defined by the American standard ASTM D 123-85 and D 1448-84 as the weighted average linear mass expressed in micrograms per inch, but also in millitex µg/cm. For many years these values were assessed with a gravimetric test method, by weighing measured fibre lengths. For commercial purposes, the linear mass is assessed today more rapidly through special micronaire testing (or similar) instruments.

Besides fineness, a very important fibre property is the maturity degree, which is the ratio between the lumen length and the thickness of the fibre wall.

In fact there is a correlation between fibre maturity, linear mass and micronaire test readings, which is expressed by following values:

- micronaire lower than 3.0 = very fine; maturity degree 0.70-0.80 = immature

- micronaire from 3.0 to 3.9 = fine; maturity degree 0.80-0.85 = maturity below average - micronaire from 4.0 to 4.9 = medium fineness; maturity degree 0.85-0.95 = ripe

- micronaire from 5.0 to 5.9 = coarse fineness; maturity degree 0.95-1.00 = maturity

above average

- micronaire 6.0 and higher = very coarse fineness; maturity degree 1.00 and higher = very ripe

The fibre strength is, like fineness, the property which most affects the yarn characteristics: in fact the two properties are closely connected one another. Owing to the enormous difference in the values of these characteristics among the various fibres, cotton strength is measured with a so-called Pressley tester a flat fibre bundle composed by 500 to 1500 fibres.

For the assessment of fibre quality, also following factors are significant:

- colour: white, slightly spotted, spotted, slightly coloured, yellow stained, slightly grey, grey. The spinner requires anyway colour evenness.

- purity: contents of foreign matters. In fact another requirement of the spinner is the presence of a limited quantity of trash (coarse dusts).

- fibre preparatory process: this corresponds to the ginning process, which is a decisive factor for fibre softness, for uniform and open condition of the tufts and for the persistence of fibre entanglements, called ″neps.

Maturity degree of the cotton fibre— Relationship between lumen width and fibre wall thickness

The typical cotton characteristics all together as colour, foreign matter contents, kind of preparation as well as length and strength contribute to determine the ″grade″ and consequently the commercial value of the fibre, which in the trade is usually referred to as ″good middling″, ″strict middling″, ″middling″, ″low middling″, ″strict good ordinary″ or ″good ordinary″.

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Cotton | The quality tests

In cotton spinning the cost of the raw material is equal to 50% of the total processing cost.

It is therefore essential that the cotton type selection is based on a wide knowledge of the fibre properties and on the end-item to be produced.

In the last decade the so-called testing lines, which were initially used only by cotton producers and exporters, have been steadily developed and improved, so that they have now been adopted also by the spinning mills; these are driven in this direction by the need to control the quality of the various fibre sources and the reliability of the suppliers, moreover they are attracted by the effective advantages offered by these integrated testing systems, which ensure a closed loop control of fibre characteristics, yarn quality and production process and are focused on the spinning mill's profit. The initials HVI (High Volume Instruments), now well known to all cotton dealers, stand for the kind of instruments which compose the cotton testing lines. These lines offer several advantages:

- measurement of the main characteristics on a cotton fibre bundle: span length as measure of the fibre length, length uniformity, strength, elongation, micronaire as a fineness measure, colour and reflectance, foreign matter (trash) contents. The spinners have asked to add also the SFC (Short Fibre Contents) value which, as already mentioned, has a great impact on the quality of carded yarns. In fact short fibres increase yarn breakages while reducing the yarn tenacity and regularity. The combing process removes the short fibres and originates a quality yarn, but at the expense of a larger quantity of wastes. At least one manufacturer of HVI systems has already the software suited to provide the SFC value from the fibrogram produced by the HVI system. Although the standard error is still about 2%, this procedure allows to identify cotton batches which went through an excessive beating or drying or were too intensively cleaned in the ginning machine.

- possibility of testing up to 180 specimen/h and of checking each single bale. - attainment of reliable test results.

The American cotton growers, under the guidance of USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture), are making considerable efforts to improve the quality and to reduce the damages caused to the fibre by mechanical picking and ginning. Therefore they were first to equip themselves with these HVI instruments, so that they are in a position to deliver controlled cotton bales with every information which can help the spinner to plan in the best way his production through:

- cotton bale management

- raw material optimisation

- process optimisation with consequent cost reduction.

By bale management we mean the ideal selection of the cotton bales to obtain acceptable technical and economic performance during their processing as well as consistent yarn quality.

By raw material optimisation we mean the result of following operations:

- consistent blending with the support of bales management;

- selection of fibre characteristics according to the requirements of the end-product and based on yarn structure;

- purchase of the most convenient raw material suited to meet the requirements of the end-product.

The process optimisation, on the other hand, depends on following factors:

- selection of the best setting for the drafting rolls;

- optimisation of the processing speeds through comparative trials.

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The cotton stock exchange

The major stock exchanges for cotton trading are situated in New York, Bremen and Tokyo. The cotton price is subject to broad fluctuations, which quite often are due to the seasonal and climatic trend.

Obviously the positive operating results of a spinning mill depend also on a careful and ″lucky″ purchase of the raw material. In this regard we would remind the practice of the purchase option of a ″future″, according to which during the validity of the option the buyer has right, but not the obligation, to turn the option into a ″cotton future″. In practice futures are contracts for the purchase or sale of goods to be delivered at long-term, but at a price established at the time of entering into the contract. There are two possible types of option:

- CALL, : in this case the buyer has the right to convert the option into a long-term

″future″”

- PUT: in this case the buyer has the right to turn the option into a short-term ″future″.

In New York since 1870 the NYCE® (New York Cotton Exchange) take place, which is the world’s leading market for the sale and purchase of cotton futures and options. It is a non-profit-making organisation which assists all segments of the cotton industry by providing the financial means needed for risk management.

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COTTON AND PRODUCTS ANNUAL Report 2009

Approved By: Oliver Flake

Prepared By: Santosh Singh

Report Highlights:

India‟s MY 2009/10 (August/July) cotton production is forecast to increase to a record 25.0 India‟s MY 2009/10 (August/July) cotton production is forecast to increase to a record 25.0 million U.S. bales on expected higher planted area and yields. Bt cotton coverage is expected to account for 87 percent of the forecast cotton area of 9.6 million hectares. Consumption is forecast to increase to 18.5 million bales on expected improvement in export and domestic demand for cotton textiles. Exports are forecast higher at a record 7.8 million bales; and imports at 390,000 bales, mostly extra long staple cotton.

Commodities: Cotton

Production:

Assuming normal weather conditions, India‟s marketing year (MY) 2009/10 (August/July) cotton production is forecast to increase to a record 25.0 million bales (5.4 million tons) onAssuming normal weather conditions, India‟s marketing year (MY) 2009/10 (August/July) cotton production is forecast to increase to a record 25.0 million bales (5.4 million tons) on

expected higher planted area and yields (see Table 1). Cotton area in MY 2009/10 is forecast to increase to a record 9.6 million hectares as cotton farmers this past year realized higher net returns vis-à-vis other competing crop because of the significant hike in the minimum support price (MSP) for seed cotton in MY 2008/09. Bt cotton is expected to account for about 87 percent of the total planted area. Assuming timely and well distributed monsoon rains and normal weather conditions, cotton yields are expected to increase to 567 kg per hectare, a six percent increase over last year‟s weather impacted crop.distributed monsoon rains and normal weather conditions, cotton yields are expected to increase to 567 kg per hectare, a six percent increase over last year‟s weather impacted crop.

Cotton, a predominantly monsoon-season crop, is planted from the end of April through September, and harvested in the fall and winter (Table 4B). Planting intentions are largely influenced by the relative price and profitability of cotton vis-à-vis competing crops (rice, guar, and fodder crops in the north; coarse grains, pulses, and sugarcane in the central region; and rice, tobacco, and chilies in the south). With farmers assured of the ^„highly‟ highly‟ remunerative MSP prices in the upcoming season, cotton area in most cotton growing states is forecast the same or slightly higher than last year. Strong end-season prices of competing crops (paddy, maize, soybean, and peanuts) will limit any major shift in area from competing crops to cotton (Table 3A). Assuming normal weather at planting time, cotton planting is forecast to expand by 2 percent over last year‟s area to 9.58 million hectares.cotton planting is forecast to expand by 2 percent over last year‟s area to 9.58 million hectares.

Cotton production has been a major success story in Indian agriculture as production more than doubled from 10.6 million bales in MY 2002/03 to a record 24.6 million bales in 2007/08. Cotton production in MY 2008/09 faltered on late planting due to a prolonged dry monsoon spell in July/August 2008. The latest cotton arrival estimates [1] indicate that MY 2008/09 production will reach 23.0 million bales [2] from 9.5 million hectares with the yield of 535 kg/hec. About 70 percent of total cotton production is accounted by the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh (Table 3A).

The production growth in recent years has been largely fueled by rapid gains in productivity as scope for area expansion is limited [3] . Cotton yields have nearly doubled from around 300 kg per hectare levels in the pre-2002/03 period to the recent 520-565 kg per hectare in the last three years. The rapid growth in yields can be attributed to introduction and expansion of Bt cotton and improved hybrid cotton varieties [4] , improved crop management practices [5] and overall favorable weather conditions in most of the growing states.

With the area under Bt cotton and improved varieties nearly peaking, the prospect for future growth in productivity is limited as most cotton is grown under rainfed conditions and on small size of land holdings [6] . Although potential exists for a further increase in yields, cotton farmers will have to invest more in production technologies for improved management of irrigation, fertilizers and micro nutrients and pests and diseases, i.e., move toward precision farming.

Riding on the expectation of the continued current growth trend, the government has set up an ambitious production target of 28.1 million bales (6.1 million tons) by 2010 [7] . Some industry sources estimate cotton production to peak around 27.0 million bales in the next 2-3 years.

Government Procurement Mounts on High MSP

In September 2008, the government raised the MSP price of different varieties of seed cotton by 26 to 48 percent over previous year when international cotton prices were high [8] . Since then, international cotton prices have crashed exerting downward pressure on

domestic cotton prices, but the ^„artificially inflated‟ MSPs unrelated to the declining cotton prices constrained the private trade from making normal seed cotton purchases from the artificially inflated‟ MSPs unrelated to the declining cotton prices constrained the private trade from making normal seed cotton purchases from the farmers. Consequently, government agencies like Cotton Corporation of India (CCI) and state marketing federations have been forced to buy large quantities of cotton compared to the previous years at the MSP [9] . While government procurement may have helped stabilized domestic cotton prices, Indian cotton became uncompetitive in the international market.

Industry sources report that government agencies have procured about 9.6 million bales by April 5, 2009, nearly half of the total cotton arrivals. While government agencies had been selling cotton at market prices, unrelated to the cost of procurement and processing, sales had been very poor initially. In order to liquidate the ballooning stocks, the CCI announced a bulk discount scheme, offering a discount of $23 to $29 per ton on the ruling market price and other benefits for buyers purchasing cotton in bulk quantities of 10,000 bales and above (see Cotton Quarterly Update March IN9028). Industry sources report that CCI and marketing federations have been able to sell about 5.1 million bales, but still have about 4.5 million bales of unsold cotton. With the domestic cotton prices improving, CCI has been slow in offering cotton for sale in the recent weeks. Industry sources report that government agencies may procure about 10.5 million bales by the end of the season.

While the private trade (ginners/traders) and textile mills have been strongly advocating the lowering of MSP prices, the government is highly unlikely to lower the MSP due to political compulsions. With forecast bumper MY 2009/10 production, government agencies will have to undertake significant MSP procurement from the beginning of the upcoming season. Industry sources report that government agencies will be under tremendous pressure by June/July to sell cotton and reduce their stocks to manageable levels to enable them to undertake the MSP operation in the upcoming season. Given the reports that the quality of government stocks may not be good, government agencies will have to offer price incentives for liquidating their cotton stocks if the current price parity between local and international cotton remains steady. Consequently, government agencies will have to write off huge costs incurred in procurement, processing and carrying of cotton under the MSP. The new government to be elected in May after the parliamentary elections will have to take a decision on management of government cotton stocks and MSP procurement for the upcoming season.

Bt Cotton — The Success Story

After the ^„Green Revolution‟ in cereal crops in late the 1960‟s, Bt cotton has been the Green Revolution‟ in cereal crops in late the 1960‟s, Bt cotton has been the Green Revolution‟ in cereal crops in late the 1960‟s, Bt cotton has been the genesis for the ^„Cotton Revolution‟ in Indian agriculture. Since the introduction of BtCotton Revolution‟ in Indian agriculture. Since the introduction of Bt

cotton in 2002, area under Bt cotton has grown remarkably in the short span of seven years. Various empirical studies report significant benefits to farmers from Bt cotton by way of an increase in yields (30-60%) and reduction in the number of pesticide sprays (50 percent) resulting in a 50 to 100 percent increase in profits [10] . Improved availability and better quality of the raw material provides the Indian textile industry with a competitive edge in the global market. Remarkable benefits from Bt cotton has spurred political support for biotechnology among Indian farmers, industry, and policy makers.

Bt cotton area in MY 2008/09 is estimated at 8.1 million hectares, and is forecast to increase to 8.3 million hectares, accounting for almost 87 percent of forecast total cotton area. Industry sources expect that the Bt cotton share will stabilize at around 90 percent of total cotton area. Due to the significant reduction in seed prices of approved Bt cotton varieties, a wider choice of approved Bt hybrids and growing awareness about the reliability and benefits of approved Bt seeds, cotton farmers are rapidly shifting from unapproved Bt seeds to approved Bt cotton seeds. Farmers are evaluating various Bt cotton hybrid varieties for factors such as better germplasm (higher yield potential), improved Bt technology (stacked gene events) and adequate availability of seeds.

Since 2002, the Government of India (GOI) approved five events and over 280 hybrids for commercial cultivation in different agro-climatic regions. In May 2008, the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) granted approval to a new Bt event developed by

the Central Institute of Cotton Research (CICR), and incorporated in a popular cotton variety Bikaneri Narma. With this, Bt technology has been for the first time introduced in a varietal background whereby farmers can save the seeds. The Bt seeds of the CICR event will be available to farmers for planting in the upcoming 2009/10 season.

Most of the approved Bt cotton hybrids are from two Monsanto events, including the Bollgard II (stacked gene event) that provides protection against a wider range of bollworm pest. Indian cotton farmers have a wider choice of Bt cotton hybrids as they increasingly adopt higher yielding Bt hybrids (better germplasm or improved Bt technology like BG-II) among range of available approved Bt hybrids.

According to industry sources [11] , in addition to the approved varieties, there are several (about fifty) Bt cotton hybrids, illegally developed, multiplied and marketed by farmers and seed companies, which are available at cheaper rates vis-à-vis approved hybrids.

However, area under unapproved Bt cotton seed has been rapidly declining since 2006 after seed companies were forced to slash the Bt cotton seed prices by state governments. The price differential between approved and unapproved Bt hybrids has declined significantly and farmers prefer to plant approved Bt hybrid seeds due to the higher risk associated with production from unapproved Bt cotton seeds.

The success of Bt cotton is resulting in a significant change in the varietal profile and share of different types of cotton produced in India. As most of the Bt hybrids are of medium and long staple cotton (26 to 32 mm), there is an increasing shortage of domestic cotton

of short staple (below 22 mm) and extra long staple (35 mm and above). If the current trend continues, the domestic textile industry may have to augment their short staple cotton requirements through imports which they are already doing in the case of extra long staple cotton.

[1] Market arrivals, through April 11, 2009, are estimated at 20.4 million bales vis-à-vis 22.3 million bales for the comparable period last year.

[2] India's second largest crop to date.

[3] Industry sources estimate cotton area to peak at 9.8 million hectares.

[4] Bt cotton in India is nearly all hybrid cotton varieties, which have better yield potential due to better germplasm vis-à-vis traditional varieties. With the successful adoption of Bt cotton, the share of hybrid cotton has expanded from 30-35 percent in pre-Bt cotton era to about 85 percent. The expansion in area under hybrid cotton varieties coupled with lower crop losses due to the Bt technology has supported the phenomenal yield gains of the recent years.

[5] The cost of Bt and hybrid cotton seeds (Rs. 750per acre) significantly higher than traditional varieties (Rs.200- 400 per acre). Higher investment at the time of planting encourages farmers to follow better crop management practices.

[6] There are about 5.5 million cotton farmers with the average size of holding of less than a hectare which limits their ability to adopt capital intensive production technologies and infrastructure.

[7] Report from the working group on textile and jute industry for the 11^th five year plan (2007-2012) http://www.txcindia.com.

[8] For more information, refer Cotton Quarterly Update-December (IN8140)

[9] MSP operations in MY 2007/08 were minimal as market prices were higher than the MSP in most purchase centers. The highest government procurement (CCI‟s MSP and Maharashtra Monopoly procurement) was recorded in MY 2004/05 at an estimated 5.1 million bales.centers. The highest government procurement (CCI‟s MSP and Maharashtra Monopoly procurement) was recorded in MY 2004/05 at an estimated 5.1 million bales.

[10] Source: James Clive, “Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2007”, ISAA Brief 37 ^[11] No official estimates are available for the number of illegal Bt hybrids and area under illegal Bt cotton.

Consumption:

Cotton consumption in MY 2009/10 is forecast to recover to 18.5 million bales (4.0 million tons) on expected improvement in domestic and export demand for textiles and sufficient domestic supplies (see Table 1). With the value of the Indian rupee vis-à-vis U.S. dollar expected to remain steady at the current low [1] , industry sources expect recovery in export demand for Indian textiles. Expected continued growth in the Indian population and economy [2] should support domestic demand for textile.

Post‟s MY 2008/09 consumption estimate is revised marginally upward to 17.3 million bales Post‟s MY 2008/09 consumption estimate is revised marginally upward to 17.3 million bales (3.9 million tons) based on the latest monthly consumption figures (Table 4) and information from market sources.

After robust growth for three consecutive years, India‟s cotton consumption faltered in MY After robust growth for three consecutive years, India‟s cotton consumption faltered in MY 2008/09 due to a slowdown in export demand and high cotton prices. However, the recent strong depreciation in the value of Indian rupee vis-à-vis the U.S. dollar since the beginning of 2009 has resulted in a revival in export demand. There has been a recovery in exports of cotton yarn and textiles since February, resulting in a lowering of their inventories to manageable levels and improvement in production activities. Industry sources report a recovery in prices of cotton yarn and textiles since March 2008, which should improve the prospects for domestic consumption. Industry sources expect cotton consumption to recover further in MY 2009/10 on continued growth in the economy, an expanding middle

class and a strong rural economy. Consequently, MY 2009/10 consumption is forecast to increase by about 6 percent to 18.5 million bales.

Cotton‟s share in the textile industry‟s total fiber use (Table 13) in Indian fiscal year (IFY) Cotton‟s share in the textile industry‟s total fiber use (Table 13) in Indian fiscal year (IFY) Cotton‟s share in the textile industry‟s total fiber use (Table 13) in Indian fiscal year (IFY) 2008/09 (April/March) is estimated to increase to 59.5 percent due to relatively higher cotton prices vis-à-vis man-made fiber (MMF) during most of 2008. However, prices of man-made fibers have sharply declined since November/December 2008, while cotton prices have gained in recent months. Assuming the current relative price ratio remains stable in the future, cotton‟s share in total fiber use is estimated to decrease by one percent stable in the future, cotton‟s share in total fiber use is estimated to decrease by one percent to 58.5 percent in IFY 2009/10.

Due to tropical weather conditions and tradition, cotton is the preferred fiber in India. However, poly-cotton blends are becoming increasingly popular in India due to their durability and ease of maintenance under tropical conditions. Mills are increasingly shifting their cotton/polyester blends in favor of polyester. Future growth in cotton usage is likely to be determined by the relative prices of cotton vis-à-vis MMFs.

Prices

The government‟s MSP operations steadied the domestic cotton prices during MY 2008/09 The government‟s MSP operations steadied the domestic cotton prices during MY 2008/09 despite weak international cotton prices and bumper production (Table 6). Nevertheless, current prices of most cotton varieties are 18 to 25 percent lower than last year‟s record despite weak international cotton prices and bumper production (Table 6). Nevertheless, current prices of most cotton varieties are 18 to 25 percent lower than last year‟s record ending prices.

Prices of the most commonly traded varieties are currently ranging between 58 to 60 cents per lb. While the domestic cotton prices during the upcoming MY 2009/10 should closely follow the international cotton price movement, prices are expected to be steady on sufficient domestic supplies.

[1] Value of the Indian rupee vis-à-vis US Dollars has depreciated by over 30 percent from Rs. 39.4 in January 2008 to Rs. 52.0 by March, 2009.

[2] Due to the global recession, the growth of the Indian economy has slowed down from 9.0 percent in 2007/08 to an estimated 7.0 percent in 2008/09 and may grow at 5-6 percent in 2009/10. As per the latest census, Indian population has been growing at 1.8 percent per annum.

Trade:

After emerging as the second largest exporter of cotton behind the U.S. for two consecutive years, India‟s cotton exports during MY 2008/09 faltered as the high MSP made Indian years, India‟s cotton exports during MY 2008/09 faltered as the high MSP made Indian cotton uncompetitive in the international market. India may re-emerge as a major player in the international market in MY 2009/10 as cotton production is forecast to decline in most exporting countries.

Post forecast‟s cotton exports in MY 2009/10 to increase to a record 7.8 million bales (1.7 Post forecast‟s cotton exports in MY 2009/10 to increase to a record 7.8 million bales (1.7 million tons) on forecast sufficient domestic supplies and the weak Indian rupee vis-à-vis other currencies (see Table 1). Imports in MY 2009/10 are forecast at 390,000 bales (85,000 tons), mostly extra long staple (ELS) and some short staple cotton to augment declining local supplies of ELS and short staple cotton. However, the relative price of local cotton vis-à-vis world cotton and the quality of domestic cotton during the upcoming season may temper these forecast trade volumes.

Post‟s MY 2008/09 export estimate has been lowered to 2.0 million bales (0.4 million tons) Post‟s MY 2008/09 export estimate has been lowered to 2.0 million bales (0.4 million tons) based on available official estimates for the first four months of the marketing year and information from trade sources [1] . Official export registration with the Textile

Commissioner‟s Office indicate that about 1.54 million bales have been registered for export Commissioner‟s Office indicate that about 1.54 million bales have been registered for export from August 2008 to March 2009, of which only about 790,000 bales have been shipped. Major export destinations have been Bangladesh, Pakistan, China and other Far-east countries. The export registrations during the months of February/March have been reported at 0.8 million bales for delivery through May, 2009. Market sources report that export prospects for Indian cotton have improved since February, 2009 due to the decline

in the value of Indian rupee vis-à-vis the U.S. dollar. Assuming current price parity between Indian cotton vis-à-vis other origin remains stable, MY 2008/09 exports are expected to reach 2.0 million bales due to strong exports during the coming months.

Post‟s MY 2008/09 import estimate has been revised higher to 625,000 bales based on Post‟s MY 2008/09 import estimate has been revised higher to 625,000 bales based on available official statistics for the first four months of the marketing year. Most of the imports have been ELS and some short staple cotton from the U.S., Egypt, and West Africa. Based on the revised official statistics, MY 2007/08 imports have been revised higher to 600,000 bales.

^[1] Official export figures are available for four months of the MY 2007/08, i.e., August –November 2008 (see table 6).

Stocks:

Due to near record production and low off take (both export and domestic), MY 2008/09 ending stocks will balloon to an estimated record 11.8 million bales. These stocks are more than sufficient for eight months consumption against the normal stocks of 3-4 months of the consumption requirement (see table 1). Industry sources estimate that more than half of the stocks will be with government agencies, some of which may have quality issues.

Forecast strong recovery in exports and consumption will drawdown the MY 2009/10 ending stocks marginally lower to 10.9 million bales, still more than sufficient for the seven month consumption requirement.

Policy:

Production Policy

Various central and state government agencies and research institutions are engaged in cotton varietal development, seed distribution, crop surveillance, and integrated pest management, extension and marketing activities. In 1999, the central government launched the Technology Mission on Cotton (TMC) to improve the availability of quality cotton at reasonable prices. The goal of the TMC is to focus on bringing about improvement in the production, productivity and quality of cotton through research, transfer of technology and improvement in the marketing and raw cotton processing sectors.

The GOI establishes minimum support prices (MSP) for cotton at the beginning of every marketing season. The Cotton Corporation of India (CCI), a government organization, is responsible for price support operations in all states. Typically, market prices remain well above the MSP, but for the MY 2008/09 when the government hiked the MSP significantly. Government agencies purchase seed cotton at the MSP, and sell the processed cotton at market prices, and the losses incurred in the operation are borne by the government exchequer.

Since the launch of futures trading in cotton by the East India Cotton Association in 1998, three commodity exchanges have futures operation in cotton. However, it is believed that cotton futures have not gained enough volume to affect the market.

In 1999, the Ministry of Textiles launched the Technology Upgradation Fund Scheme (TUFS) that provides an interest subsidy on loans intended to modernize the textile industry. At the end of December 2008, more than Rs. 579 billion ($11.6 billion) loans had been disbursed under the TUFS to nearly 23,500 textile units. In 2007, the government launched the Scheme for Integrated Textile Parks to provide the textile industry with world-class infrastructure facilities. The government has so far approved 40 parks with an estimated investment of Rs. 214.8 billion ($4.3 billion). The central government also has several ongoing schemes for development of specifics sectors like handlooms, power looms etc [1] . Additionally, several state governments supplement the central government efforts by supporting development schemes including tax incentives, subsidies, etc for the textile industry in their respective states.

Trade Policy

On July 8, 2008, the Government of India removed the import duty (14.7 percent) on cotton [2] . The tariff levels on cotton textile products (Table 21) remained unchanged in the 2009 Indian budget that is effective for IFY 2009/10 (April/March).

On July 22, 2008, the Ministry of Commerce issued a notification [3] that imposes the condition that states “The contracts for exports of cotton shall be registered with the Textile

Commissioner prior to shipment. Clearance of cotton consignments by customs should be done after verifying that the contracts have been registered.”

This was done to enable the government to monitor India‟s exports of cotton as well as the This was done to enable the government to monitor India‟s exports of cotton as well as the domestic cotton supply situation. Earlier, export statistics were made available to the government with a lag of 4-6 months after physical exports since the Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence takes some time in collecting, compiling and tabulating the custom statistics from each port

On February 17, 2009, the government announced the Vishesh Krishi Gram Upaj Yojana [4] (VKGUY) benefit to exports of raw cotton to encourage cotton exports and liquidate burdensome cotton stocks from the domestic market. The benefits have been extended on a retrospective basis for cotton exports from April 1, 2008 to June 30, 2009, wherein exporters are entitled to a five percent duty credit scrip on the FOB value, which can be traded and used for availing a duty relief for imports. The Indian textile industry has strongly opposed the move as the policy to subsidize cotton exports will give undue benefit to their competitors from China, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Indonesia in the global cotton textile market. However, market sources believe that the government may extend the June 30, 2009 deadline further through the MY 2009/10 season if the current price parity between the domestic and international market does not change substantially in favor of exports.

With the expiration of the MFA in January 2005, Indian exports of all textile products have been liberalized. In an effort to promote the export of value-added cotton textiles, the GOI provides various incentives. Export oriented units (EOUs) and firms importing against an advance license receive a duty drawback (zero duty for EOUs, and duty discounts for others) on imports of raw materials for the export of value-added goods. Under the “Export Promotion Capital Goods” plan, imports of capital goods and machinery are allowed at reduced duty rates against export obligations (zero duty for a 100 percent EOU).

In the recent annual supplement to the foreign trade policy, the government announced that textile and leather product exporters will get direct government assistance of 2% of their FOB value of exports to the U.S. and E.U as duty free scrip‟s. The scheme will be that textile and leather product exporters will get direct government assistance of 2% of their FOB value of exports to the U.S. and E.U as duty free scrip‟s. The scheme will be effective for the period April August 2009 and a sum of Rs. 32.5 million ($0.65 million) has been allotted for the scheme.

[1] For more information on TUFS and other central government schemes for the textile industry, refer the website of Office of the Textile Commissioner http://www.txcindia.com/ and review various schemes in the heading ^„Progress of Central Schemes‟.Progress of Central Schemes‟.

[2] http://www.cbec.gov.in/customs/cs-act/notifications/notfns-2k8/cs84-2k8.htm

[3] No 26(RE-2008)/2004-09 http://164.100.9.245/exim/2000/not/not08/not2608.htm)

[4] Special Agriculture & Village Produce Scheme

Marketing:

India should be in the cotton export market for the next few (3-4) years, until domestic consumption catches up with production. Most exports are expected to be of medium-to­long staple cotton (25 to 32 mm length) to neighboring countries, China, and Far East countries. Post expects India to continue to import ELS and quality long staple cotton (28- 34 mm), with occasional imports of short staple cotton (below 22 mm) when international prices are favorable. The United States has been the leading supplier of cotton to India over the past few years, but volumes have declined in recent years on sufficient domestic supplies.

Indian mills importing U.S. Pima and upland cotton are appreciative of its quality and consistency. However, U.S. cotton faces severe competition from neighboring suppliers like

Egypt, West Africa, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), and Australia due to their freight advantage and shorter delivery periods.

Production, Supply and Demand Data Statistics:

Table 2: Commodity, ELS Cotton - 35mm staple length and above

Source: Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence & Statistics (DGCIS), GOI.

Note: Figures include non-spinnable cotton waste not included in the PS&D. Source: Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence & Statistics (DGCIS), GOI.

Notes:

/1 : OGL(Open General License)- No restrictions on imports.

/2 : Most goods of the under Chapter 52 get a tariff concession up to 50 percent of the effective basic duty on imports from less developed countries (LDC) members of SAPTA - Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives.

/3 : CVD (Countervailing Duty) = local excise taxes + Central Cess applied on CIF value of good plus Basic Duty.

Local excise tax rate = 4.12 % for items not containing synthetic fiber or 8.24 % for items containing synthetic fiber

Central Cess under Textile Com Act, 1963 = 0.05%

/4: Special CVD = 4 percent applied on CIF Value of Good plus Basic Duty plus CVD plus Education Cess. However, cotton fabrics are exempted from Special CVD.

/5 : Education Cess = 2+1 percent of the Basic duty + CVD.

However, education cess exempted in case of items under the HS codes 5208.41, 5208.42, 5208.49, 5208.51, 5208.52,

5208.53, 5208.59, 5209.41, 5209.42, 5209.49, 5209.51, 5209.52, 5209.59, 5210.41, 5210.42, 5210.49, 5210.51,

5210.52, 5210.59, 5211.41, 5211.42, 5211.59, 5212.15, 5212.24, 5212.25.

/6: Total Applicable Duty computation

A: CIF Value of Good

B: Basic Duty = Basic Duty Rate x CIF Value

C : CV Duty = CVD Rate x (A+ B)

where CVD Rate = Excise Tax Rate + Central Cess

D : Spl CVD = Spl CVD Rate x (A+B+C) E: Education Cess = 3% of (B+C+D) Total Applicable Duty = B+C+D+E

/7: Basic Duty on 5208.39 is 10% or rs. 150/kg whichever is higher

on 5208.41 is 10% or rs. 9/sq meter on 5208.42 is 10% or rs. 37/sq meter on 5208.49 is 10% or rs. 200/kg

on 5208.51 is 10% or rs. 27/sqmeter on 5208.52 is 10% or rs. 23/sqmeter on 5208.59 is 10% or rs. 50/sqmeter

/8 : Basic Duty on 5209.31-39 is 10% or rs. 150/kg on 5209.41 is 10% or rs. 32/sqmeter on 5209.43 is 10% or rs. 30/sqmeter

on 5209.49 is 10% or rs. 150/kg

on 5209.51-52 is 10% or rs. 30/sqmeter on 5209.59 is 10% or rs. 38/sqmeter

/9 : Basic Duty on 5210.39 is 10% or rs. 150/kg

on 5210.41 is 10% or rs. 15 /sqmeter on 5210.49 is 10% or rs. 185/kg

on 5210.51-59 is 10% or rs. 15/sqmeter

/10: Basic Duty on 5211.31-39 is 10% or rs. 150/kg on 5211.41 is 10% or rs. 44/sqmeter on 5211.42 is 10% or rs. 18 per sqmeter on 5211.43 is 10% or rs. 40/sqmeter on 5211.49 is 10% or rs. 150/kg

on 5211.51-59 is 10% or rs. 18/sqmeter

/11: Basic Duty on 5212.15 and 5212.25 is 10% or rs. 165/kg on 5212.24 is 10% or rs. 20/sqmeter

Author Defined:

Extra Long Staple Cotton

The Indian cotton textile industry largely depends on imports to meet their consumption needs for extra long staple (ELS) cotton as domestic ELS cotton production is on a steady decline. ELS cotton is used for the production of quality yarn, fabric, and dress material, mostly for exports, and for a small but growing high-end domestic market segment.

Extra long staple (ELS) cotton production in MY 2009/10 is forecast lower at 135,000 bales (see Table 2) as the increase in the MSP for ELS cotton (DCH-32) has been lower than competing long staple varieties (Bunny, Brahma, other 30-34 mm varieties) [1] . Consequently, ELS cotton farmers are expected to shift to long staple varieties such as Bunny and Brahma (30-34 mm) as these varieties give higher and stable yields.

There are very few Indian cotton varieties (DCH-32, TCH-213, and Suvin grown mostly in southern India) that meet international ELS specifications. The fiber quality and yields of these varieties have deteriorated in recent years causing marketing problems and lower returns to growers. Therefore, farmers are increasingly shifting to long staple varieties, which have higher yields and fewer quality problems. Local mills use the long staple varieties for blending with imported ELS cotton for production of quality yarn and fabric. Efforts to improve the productivity of ELS parent lines have been met with limited success.

India‟s MY 2009/10 ELS cotton consumption is forecast to recover to 375,000 bales on expected improvement in demand for finer count yarns and fabrics, both for export and for India‟s MY 2009/10 ELS cotton consumption is forecast to recover to 375,000 bales on expected improvement in demand for finer count yarns and fabrics, both for export and for the domestic market. Since most of the consumption requirements are met through imports, MY 2009/10 imports are forecast higher at 230,000 bales. MY 2008/09 consumption is revised lower to 345,000 bales due to poor export demand for finer count yarns and fabrics. Imports have been revised lower to 175,000 bales as mills curtailed consumption.

Textile Industry

India is the second largest producer of textiles and garments after China and has a share of 3.9 percent in the global textile trade. The textile industry is largely cotton based contributing about 12 percent to the country's total export earnings, 11 percent of industrial production, 4 percent to GDP and provides direct employment to over 33.17 million people,

the second largest employment generator after agriculture [2] . Post MFA (2005/06), the textile industry had been progressing well for three consecutive years on sufficient raw material supplies, and strong export and domestic demand. However, the textile industry has been facing severe challenges since late 2007 due to an increase in the price of raw material, depressed global demand for textiles, and other infrastructure problems. Consequently, growth in the production of textiles is estimated to come down in IFY 2008/09 compared to last year (Tables 8-12)

The sharp weakening of value of the Indian rupee since February 2009 has improved export price realization in rupee terms. Consequently, industry sources report an improvement in export demand for textile products. Export demand for Indian textiles is expected to recover in IFY 2009/10 provided the Indian rupee remains stable. Domestic demand for textiles is expected to grow on continued strong growth in the economy and an expanding population. Consequently, industry sources expect a turnaround in the textile industry, with the production in IFY 2009/10 forecast to increase by 4-5 percent over the previous year.

The Indian textile industry includes both an "organized" sector (large-scale spinning units and composite mills) and an "unorganized" sector (small-scale spinning units, power looms, handlooms, hosiery units). More than 95 percent of yarn is produced in the organized sector. The weaving industry is mainly supplied by the unorganized sector, with power looms accounting for 60 percent, handlooms for 18 percent, and hosiery units for 17 percent of total cloth production. The organized sector weaving mills account for the remaining 5 percent of cloth production.

After three consecutive years of steady double digit growth, cotton textile exports in the first five months of IFY 2008/09 slowed down to 4 percent (Table 16). While official statistics are not available, market sources report a significant decline in exports from August 2008 onwards, and total exports during IFY 2008/09 may decline by 5-6 percent over last year. However, there has been a resurgence in export demand since March 2009 and textile export prospects are expected to improve in IFY 2009/10.

Cotton madeups account for the major share of cotton textile exports followed by cotton yarn, and cotton fabric (Tables 18-20). Indian textile exports are typically targeted at the lower quality end of the international market. A few modern integrated textile units are now focusing on exports of finer count yarns, fabric, and branded garments for the upper segment of the world market. Leading textile groups are making significant investments in modern equipment and in further integration in the post MFA-era (after January 2005).

[1] See India Cotton Quarterly Update - December, 2008 (IN8140)

[2]Source: Confederation of Indian Industries http://www.citiindia.com/

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RING SPINNING VARIABLES - EGYPTIAN COTTON

OPTIMIZING RING SPINNING VARIABLES AND A PROPOSED PROCEDURE TO
DETERMINE THE EGYPTIAN COTTON SPINNING POTENTIAL
EL-SAYED M. A. M.
negmmohamed@yahoo.com
Head of Spinning Research Dept.
Cotton Research Institute,
Agricultural Research Center,
Giza, Egypt
ABSTRACT
In this study, many approaches were examined such as spindle defects and yarn bobbin position along with successively varying spindle speed to select the optimum processing parameters for standard testing of the Egyptian cotton, and hence suggesting a spinning procedure for the CRI 96-spindle-hour spinning test. Giza 80 was used to test the spindle error and yarn bobbin position also, to study the varying spindle speed, while, Giza 80 as well as Giza 86 and Giza 70 were used to reveal the spinning limit technique.
The coefficient of variation in lea count strength product (introduced between the spindles of the ring frame) was considerable, the variance was very small (1.01 %) in extreme cases and could be neglected. The lea count strength product at different positions on the bobbin spun on the ring frame between the pigtail to full bobbin was insignificant. The increase in spindle speed from 1000 to 17500 rpm did not affect single yarn strength, yarn evenness and yarn hairiness. The total imperfections are at 10,000 rpm minimum of spindle, and beyond this speed the imperfections increase gradually with the increase in spindle speed.
The proposed procedure of accelerated spinning technique appears promising in indicating the relative level of end breakage and optimum yarn quality parameters for different cotton varieties. A series of 96- spindle-hour spinning tests proved to be reliable in exploring practical spinning limits of any cotton to find out the finest count for a particular cotton; taking into consideration ends-down and yarn quality parameters.
Keywords: Egyptian cotton, cotton spinning, bobbins

INTRODUCTION
As a result of the technological advances in spinning industry, The Cotton Research Institute, in its effort to continuously improve the Egyptian cotton competitiveness in the world markets has modernized the experimental spinning mill. It was established in 1935 and expanded in 1965, and is running according to a system using very small samples of lint (60 grams). A completely new spinning mill working under a semi-industrial condition using a
bulk sample of lint (5 Kg minimum) has been added more recently (2006).
A standard testing system is required to make the best use of the new machinery. To define the new system, several spinning variables, especially spindle speed and spindle defects, yarn bobbin position and spinning potential.
The effect of spindle speed on yarn properties was observed by many workers, Anbarasan (1996) reported that the benefit available with the advanced speed system was subsequently extended future with the introduction of variable speed system such as inverter drive system. This system offers the possibility of arranging a selective and continuous speed adjustment for the complete cop build. In this way, optimum conditions of spindle speed can be obtained such that, throughout the cop build, a practically constant spinning tension is available. Chaudhuri (2003) in his work on acrylic spun yarn observed that, increase of spindle speed results in the increase of yarn tenacity, initial modulus, work of rupture, packing coefficient and total imperfections up to spindle speed of 18000 rpm whereas mass irregularity remains unchanged. Hairiness Index does not show any relationship with the increase in spindle speed. Nasir et al. (2004) and Shamuganandam et al (2005) indicated that the spindle speed is the most important parameter deciding the ring frame production per spindle. From quality point of view, it was observed that lower spindle speed was better for yarn quality parameters viz. yarn count, yarn lea strength. From production point of view higher spindle speed was the best but it deteriorates yarn quality. The three key factors which determine spindle speeds are the technological capability of ring frame, end breakage rate and yarn quality.
The spinning performance of cotton is evaluated mainly by its rate of end breakage per 1000 spindle hours. For a valid evaluation of cotton, experience has shown that a minimum of 25000 spindle-hour mill scale test, the conventional 5000 spindle-hour pilot plant scale test, the SRRL "Southern Regional Research Laboratory" 720 spindle-hour scale spinning performance test and the 84 spindle-hour small laboratory scale spinning performance are needed, (ASTM 1991). These many spindle hours need much material and time, and necessarily limit the extent of the possible evaluations. As a result, research laboratories find it difficult to conduct such types of "spinnability" tests routinely, since experimental samples are generally small and processing equipment is limited, (Louis 1961). In Cotton Research Institute "CRI", increase emphasis are placed on comparing the new promising varieties with commercial ones and evaluate the new hybrid in isolated filed. Thus it appears that there is a real need for a procedure to rapidly evaluate the spinning performance in terms of yarn quality and end breakage rate.
Through several investigations, different studies to determine the spinning potential yarn number or spinning limit by proposed approaches depend on; a) use of accelerated tests by increasing the yarn tension or reducing its twist during the spinning trails; b) measurement of the "spinning end strength", which was defined as the maximum stress sustained by the yarn during the end-breakage sequence; and c) using neural network based on the fiber and machine interaction, (Krifa and Ethridge 2004).
Rouse (1965) proposed an equation for predicting the spinning potential yarn number "SPY."
The equation used to compute the SPY is given as follows:
SPY = 2(Na) - (Nn) - 0.2B
= Na - e - 0.2B
Where;
SPY: Spinning potential yarn number (expressed as English yarn count, Ne)
Na: Actual yarn count
Nn: Nominal yarn count
B: Number of spindles with end breakage e: Nn — Na: error in actual yarn count
The formula was criticized by Zhu and Ethridge (1996) as follows;
1. Neither the formal nor the informal record on development and application of the ring SPY test contains explanation or justification of the term -0.2B in the equation. Since there is no theoretical justification, it must be surmised that it was determined by empirical testing done during the 1950's. Therefore, prudence would demand that its empirical validity be verified on modern ring spinning frames.

2. It is also not explained in the literature why the actual yarn count (Na) is doubled while the nominal yarn count (Nn) is not. The second line of the equation was added to indicate that the formulation results in an adjustment for the failure to always spin the exact yarn count targeted in the test procedure.
It could be added that the range of 4 to 20 end breakages is an absolute number i.e. number of end breakages for coarse counts "up to 24 Ne," were even with the same range of the extra fme counts "up to 160 Ne." in this respect, Ratnam and Chellamani (1999) decided that in ring spinning, the norms for end breaks per 100 spindle hours for a good working are: 25 in 20s and 30s, 16 in 40s, 12 in 60s, 80s and finer counts.
In this study, for a rapid spinning technique, many approaches were examined such as (a) spindle defects and yarn bobbin position; (b) successively varying spindle speed to select of optimum process parameters for standard testing of the Egyptian cotton, and (c) suggesting a spinning procedure for the CRI 96-spindle­hour spinning test.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Giza 80 was spun at 40s carded yarn to test the spindle error and yarn bobbin position and also, to study the varying spindle speeds, while, Giza 80 as well as Giza 86 and Giza 70, were spun into successive fine carded yarn counts 40, 50 and 60s for Giza 80, while Giza 86 and Giza 70 were spun into 70, 80, 90 and 100's carded counts to reveal the spinning limit technique. Data on the properties of the cotton varieties are illustrated in Table 1.
Yarn Preparation
The new spinning machinery
included: Compact Bale Opener "BO-C"; compact Opener "TO-C" with needle beater fitted with Chute feed and "DK-780" carding machine working with short and long term Auto leveler; HSR 1000 draw-frame machine, working with short and long term Auto leveler. Marzoli, High-speed frame "PCX 16-A 36 spindles; Marzoli, RST1 ring and compact spinning" Olfil System" of one frame consisting of 96 spindles, was used sequentially for the preparation of the samples. Six different samples of yarns having nominal linear density of 14.8 tex (40 Ne) with ae 4.0 were prepared by varying spindle speeds from 10 000 rpm to 18 000 rpm.

End breakage
96 hours runs were made for each yarn count and the number of end breakages was recorded at 30-minute intervals during which all broken ends were pieced up. According to Louis (1961) end breakage data were sorted into two categories, one is based on the initial end breakages and the other is based on the initial and repeated end breakages, thus giving justification for not piecing the end after breakage. Furthermore, another advantage of this method is that it avoids the danger of counting repeated breakages caused by mechanical defects.
Tensile testing
Statimat ME with a testing speed of 5000 mm/min with a test length of 50 cm was used for the testing of tensile properties. An average of 120 tests for breaking load and elongation value was taken for the calculation of tenacity and breaking extension of the samples. Lea product (lea count strength product) was measured by using the Good-Brand Lea Tester.
Evenness, imperfections and hairiness testing
The Uster Evenness Tester (UT-3) was used for testing yarn evenness, number of imperfections and hairiness index with a testing speed of 400 m/min for a period of one minute. Average of three tests was taken for final results.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Spindle defect
In order to study the "spindle defects" i.e. the inherent variability between machine spindles, the ring frame was divided into different six parts of the spindles. Giza 80 samples were spun on each of the 96 spindles for the machine giving 24 lea count strength per spindle/sample as shown in Table 2. The experiment revealed that the coefficient of variation in lea strength (introduced between the spindles of the ring frame) were considerable, and a C.V. % was very small (1.01 %) in extreme cases and could be neglected.
Yarn bobbin position
The first problem was to decide the position at which yarn should be spun and tested on the bobbin. With the aid of a Good-Brand Lea Tester, it was found that the lea count strength product at different positions on the bobbin spun on a frame between the pigtail to full bobbin showed insignificant differences, (Table 2). The concept of continuous development of ring spinning technology, is that the inverter drive controls and provides constancy of the yarn tension along the bobbin by smoothness of transition from the slow speed to the maximum speed at every phase of bobbin build up during start-up and vise versa during the end of the bobbin build. The following speed can be modified during the bobbin build up, according to Marzoli, RST1 report (2001):

Effect of spindle speed on end breaks
A major factor which limits the maximum spindle speed is the end breakage rate. An end break occurs whenever the spinning tension exceeds the yarn breaking force. End breakage rates of yarn produced from Giza 80 with various spindle speeds is given in Table 3. The data showed no effect of spindle speed on end breakage of 100 spindle/hour. Considering the above aspects, a clear understanding of the yam tension condition prevailing during a bobbin build up becomes necessary in any attempt to increase the spindle speed by reducing the end breakage rate.
With inverter motor drives, end breaks are fewer by about 30 percent at the beginning of the doff compared to constant drive motors. End breaks are usually more at the bobbin bottom stage and so, inverter motor drives help in reducing the work load of the tension at the beginning of the doff, (Ratnam and Chellamani 1999).

Effect of spindle speed on yarn tenacity and elongation
The statistical analysis of variance supporting by least significant difference of the data pertaining to yarn lea strength is given in Table 3. While increasing spindle speeds, all possible care should be taken to ensure that yarn quality is not affected. With the increase in spindle speed, there is no appreciable change in yarn tenacity and elongation. The data show that there is small change of yarn tenacity and elongation with the change of spindle speed from 10000 up to 17500 rpm., meaning that the differences in yarn tenacity and elongation are marginal. This result is basically due to the constancy of the yarn tension along the bobbin build. This finding is not supported by Chaudhuri (2003), who stated that, at higher spindle speed, packing coefficient is higher resulting higher compactness. Higher the compactness of the yarn structure better is the fiber migration within the yarn and hence higher is the interlocking structure of fibers within the yarn. As a result yarn strength rises with the increase in spindle speed of the ring frame.
Effect of spindle speed on yarn unevenness and hairiness index
The mean values pertaining to yarn unevenness under different levels of spindle speed are tabulated in Table 3. There is an appreciable change in unevenness and hairiness index value of the yarns according to the increase in spindle speed. The data show that there is significant increase of yarn unevenness with the increase in of spindle speed, while there is a slight increase in yarn hairiness index. The reason may be due to a high centrifugal force acting on the yarn which gives more outward force of the tail end of the fiber causing formation of more protruding ends and irregularity on the yarn surface Chaudhuri (2003).
Effect of spindle speed on yarn imperfections
The mean values of yarn imperfections are given in Table 3. It is observed that the total imperfections is minimum at 10000 rpm of the ring frame spindle for the cotton variety under study, and beyond this speed the imperfections increases gradually with the increase in spindle speed. This finding was supported by Chaudhuri (2003) who reported that at higher spindle speed, the drafting force becomes higher. So, at the higher drafting force the average fiber tension at the front roller will cause an increase in the dragging out of the sliver into the front roller-nip. This dragging out of un-drafted sliver into the nip of the front roller and the subsequent retreat under the action of internal elastic force would cause an increase in the irregularity and imperfections that would offset the randomization effect of the speed.
A proposed spinning procedure for the CRI 96 spindle-hour spinning test
Confidence limits and degree of precision are calculated as follows;
It could be seen from Table 4, that the degree of precision decreased markedly when total number of spindles were increased from 16 to 96. The differences between the degrees of precision for the same number of spindles are ascribed to the real differences between fiber properties of the cotton varieties "Giza 80, Giza 86 and Giza 70". Figure 2 illustrated the potential spinning of the three cotton varieties using the number of end breakage rates within the control limits of 16 "for Giza 80" to 12 "for Giza 86 and Giza 70."



After many experimental trials, the following test procedure was developed starting with 40s for LS Upper Egypt cottons, 50s for LS Delta cottons and 70s for
1. Frame specification:
96 spindles with pendulum arm 45 mm diameter ring
10,000 — 18,000 rpm spindle speed range.
ELS cottons, but it can be easily adapted to evaluate the spinning performance of any cotton and yarn numbers.
2. Spinning work reported in this
investigation was done on 16 spindles.
Spinning duration was 6 hours per run.
3. Use about 50 Kg of cotton, based on
average 3 Kg per roving bobbin.
4. Select a yarn count that is estimated
to be the spinning limit, and set up the spinning frame.
5. Use a constant 14000 spindle speed
with appropriate traveler and twist multiplier according to ASTM, D­2811, (1991).
6. For LS Egyptian cotton, the tests
were started at initial medium yarn count of 40 Ne, while ELS cotton, started at fine carded yarn count of 70 Ne and 100 Ne for combed yarns.
7. For this test, spin all the 16 bobbins
for 6 hours. In this respect, six different cotton varieties in the same cotton category can be spun.
8. After sufficient time of running, size
all the 16 bobbins for the actual yarn
count and set up the machine for the target yarn count.
9. Use the end breakage rates within
the control limits of 25 and 12, according to yarn count, Ratnam and chellamani (1999).
10. Spin the twelve 30- minute intervals and sum up the data, Table 5.
11. The frame should be doffed after each yarn count to test yarn quality parameters, hence each run will start with empty bobbins.
12. After the first yarn count has been run, set up the frame for another yarn count and follow a similar procedure for progressive finer yarn count by increasing yarn count in increments of 5 units.

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Compare Blowroom

Comparative Performance Analysis of Blowroom Cleaning Machinery for Cotton
Fibre Length Characteristics
The effect of beater speed, grid bar setting and cotton trash percentage upon Uniclean (B 11) and Giant cleaner setup were studied for quality characteristics of cotton. The results in respect of fibre length and uniformity ratio showed highly significant differences in the mean values for different combination of settings as well as cleaning segments. Uniclean exert swift gentle but firm action of less stress on fibres whereas the action of Giant cleaner is very aggressive and severe during its cleaning action, which is detrimental to fibre staple.
Key words: Uniclean, Blowroom, Cotton Fibre Length, span length, Uniformity Ratio
Introduction
The cotton textile industry enjoys a highly significant position in the economy of Pakistan. For today's rapidly advancing textile industry and quality conscious international market, the comprehensive information about the characteristics of lint cotton, which is the raw material of the industry is a dire need for producing quality goods at competitive costs by way of reducing wastage and improving productivity level.
Since mechanized spinning industry came into being various opening and cleaning machines were developed most of which are now obsolete. With the passage of time and with the advent of new technologies high-speed machines were designed having more opening and cleaning efficiency. In the past a typical blow room line for the cleaning of cotton consists of four to six, and in some cases even seven beating points. The underlying idea was to open and clean the material slowly and gradually. But during the last decade, the trend has shifted to minimize the number of machines in the blow room line. Now in modern cleaning line only two to three beating points are available. This became possible only due to the introduction of machines with higher degree of opening capabilities.
Most of the spinning mills in Pakistan are equipped with conventional cleaning set-up in blow room. Step or Giant cleaner for example is used for excellence in opening and cleaning of cotton through the combination of the action of opposing spikes and the beating action. In this machine, the material falls into the feed hopper and passes to the first beater. From there, it is transported upwards by six beating rollers, each carrying profiled bars, the beaters are arranged on a line inclined upwards at 45°. The elimination of impurities takes place during the continual passage of the material over the grid arranged under the rollers. The grids are always adjustable and usually the beater speed is also adjustable. In Giant cleaner, progressive increase
in speed results in a directly proportional increase in waste extraction. The proportions of lint and trash in the dropping are independent of speed up to about 550 rev/min, so that a much greater cleaning efficiency is achieved at these higher speeds. At speed greater than 550 rev/min, however the lint loss is much greater as compared to the trash extraction.
Some reports are available regarding the effect of cleaning machinery upon fibre characteristics. Behery (1992) narrated that opening and cleaning machines removes short fibres and effect the change in fibre length due to fibre/machine interaction, whereas Schneider (1995) advocated that the Rieter Uniclean performs three main functions equally well viz; efficient cleaning at the start of the blow room lines, integration of an efficient dedusting elements and exceptionally gentle treatments of fibres. Similarly Klein (2000) lamented that Uniclean leads to a higher degree of cleaning, a better cleaning efficiency, and less stress on the fibres. Also Liu et al. (2001) commented as the large variation of single fibre properties within a single variety suggests a very strong influence of growth conditions and development.
Materials and Methods
The present research was initiated in the Department of Fibre Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad and conducted at Resham Textile Industries Limited Pattoki District Kasoor during the year 2002. The details of the material used and methods applied to test the raw material and to measure various quality characteristics are briefly described here under.
Material Used
Lint cotton samples with different level of trash was collected from running material at M/S Resham Textile Industries Limited, cotton samples were subjected to the physical testing.
Spinning Process
Lint cotton with different levels of trash was processed at Trutzschler blow room line with and without Reiter Uniclean set-up, and following mechanical changes were undertaken at Uniclean as well as Giant cleaner in blow room.
After every possible combination of above variables at Uniclean as well as Giant cleaner, samples from the duct were collected and tested for the basic fibre characteristics along with the quality evaluation tests for staple length and uniformity ratio.


Atmospheric Conditions
The testing work was carried out under the standard laboratory conditions, which were maintained at 65+2% relative humidity and 20±2°C temperature.
Statistical Analysis
Four Factor Factorial Completely Randomized Design was applied in the analysis of variance for testing differences among various quality characters studied in this investigation. Duncan's Multiple Range Test was also applied for individual comparison of means among various quality characteristics as suggested by Steel and Torrie (1980). The data thus obtained was subjected to statistical manipulation on computer employing M-Stat micro computer program as devised by Freed (1992).
Results and Discussion

Span Length
The statistical analysis of variance regarding to span length of cotton for different settings at Uniclean as well as Giant cleaner in blow room is given in Table 1. The effects of Machines (M) and Beater Speed (5) are found highly significant. However the effects of trash percentage in cotton upon span length and of interactions are non-significant.
The comparison of individual mean values for machines in blow room on fibre span length is presented in Table la. Which indicated that the highest fibre span length of value 27.48 millimeter is obtained for Uniclean (M1) and the lowest value of staple length 27.43 mm is obtained for Giant cleaner (M2). Hence these machines differ significantly for their action upon cotton. On the basis of above results, it is crystal clear that Uniclean exert swift gentle but firm action of less stress on fibres whereas the action of Giant cleaner is very aggressive and severe during its cleaning action which is detrimental to fibre staple. Similarly views were put forth by Klein (2000) who lamented that Uniclean leads to a higher degree of cleaning, a better cleaning efficiency, and less stress on the fibres. Identical observation were presented by Schneider (1995) who advocated that the Rieter Uniclean performs three main functions equally well viz; efficient cleaning at the start of the blow room lines, integration of an efficient dedusting elements and exceptionally gentle treatments of fibres. Hence it can be very well visualized from the present research of that the cleaning action Uniclean is exceptionally smart and safe, less injurious to fibre for fibre cleaning operation in comparison with/to Giant cleaner.
As regards to the trash percentage the comparison of individual means revealed that best value of staple length (27.47 mm) is recorded at T1 followed by T 2and T 3with their respective means as 27.45 and 27.44 mm and these values are at par. The above results indicate that trash record independent effect upon staple length. Some previous researchers indicated that mill cleaning opens the cotton to small tuft size and extract as much trash as possible before the cotton goes to card and proper cleaning protects the staple length (Bel et al., 1991).
Duncan's multiple range test for individual comparison of mean values reveals, that beater speed, starting from B1 (480 rpm) till B, (960 rpm) recorded highly significant difference in their mean values. At 134 (629 rpm) maximum value of fibre length is observed followed by B3, B5, B6, B2, B7, BE and B1, respective mean for staple being 27.50, 27.49, 27.48, 27.46, 27.44, 27.44,27.42 and
27.41 millimeter. The above results express that for too high or too low beater speeds, the corresponding fibre length decreases, while the moderate speed 134 (629 rpm) recorded best results. The present research findings get full confirmation from the work of lqbal (2002) who concluded that fibre length decreased both at too low and too high beater speeds.
As regard to grid bar settings, best mean value of fibre length is recorded at (G5) followed by G4, G3, G2 and G1 with their respective mean values of length as 27.47, 27.46, 27.46, 27.45 and 27.44 millimeter. These values indicate nill effect of grid bar settings upon fibre length. Similarly previous researcher Maqsood (2000) postulated that grid bar settings at scutcher has a non-significant effect on fibre length. Whereas Behery (1992) advanced this statement that opening and cleaning machines removes short fibres and effect the change in fibre length due to fibre/machine interaction. From the above all results it can be inferred that grid bar opening angle has no effect upon the staple of cotton because it only facilitate the drain of non-lint elements.

Length Uniformity Ratio
The statistical analysis of variance regarding to length uniformity ratio of cotton for different settings at Uniclean as well as Giant cleaner in blow room is given in Table 2a, which indicate that the effects of Machines (M), Beater Speed (5) and Grid bar settings (G) are highly significant whereas the effect of trash percentage in cotton and all interactions are non-significant.
The comparison of individual mean values for machines in blow room on length uniformity ratio is presented in Table 2b. Which indicate that maximum length uniformity ratio of 47.49 percent is obtained for Uniclean (M1) and the lowest value of 47.17 percent is obtained for Giant cleaner (M2). Hence these machines significantly differ from one another. From the above discussion it is evident that the performance of Uniclean is for better then Giant cleaner. Similar views were put forth by Schneider (1995) who mentioned that the Reiter Uniclean performs three main functions equally well viz efficient cleaning at the start of the blow room lines, integration of an efficient dedusting elements and exceptionally gentle treatments of fibres. Similarly Anonymous (2000) argued that the Uniclean B„ is a machine for cleaning and extracting for cotton of any origin. Impurities are removed gently and effectively. The raw material is feed through without nipping. Hence it can be very well visualized from the present research, that cleaning action of Uni-clean is exceptionally smart and safe, less injurious to fibre for fibre cleaning operation in comparison with Giant cleaner.
The individual comparison for trash percentage recorded non-significant differences in their mean values. Maximum value of length uniformity ratio is recorded at T, followed by T2 and T3 with their respective mean values as 47.42, 47.32 and 47.36 percent. The above results indicate that trash in cotton does not record any significant effect upon length uniformity ratio. Previous researcher agreed that cotton yarn irregularity was considerably influenced by the properties of fibre from which uniformity was the most important property Ramey and Beaton (1989).
The individual comparison of means values reveals that various beater speeds starting from B, (480 rpm) till B, (960 rpm) recorded highly significant differences in their mean values. At 134 (629 rpm) maximum value of length uniformity is observed followed by B3, B5, B2, Bo B1, B7 and B8 with their respective means being 47.64, 47.59, 47.48, 47.36, 47.28, 47.19, 47.16 and 46.96 percent. The above results express that uniformity ratio gradually decrease with the increase in beater speed. At high speed more short fibre are produced which may cause reduction in uniformity ratio. The present finding get full confirmation from the work of lqbal (2002) who noted that at higher beater speed more short fibres are formed which may cause reduction in uniformity ratio. In earlier work Backe (1986) reported that as uniformity increased, the short fibre content decreased.
The individual means of grid bar opening differ significantly from each other for the length uniformity ratio of cotton fibre. Best value of uniformity ratio (47.79%) is recorded at G, opening followed by G4, G3, G2 and G, with their respective mean values as 47.56, 47.33, 47.09 and 46.90 percent. The present results show that at wider opening of grid bar, the uniformity ratio may improve due to the removal of short fibre. Similar views are given by Maqsood (2000) who elucidated that short fibre content may reduce as the more opening of grid bar and uniformity ratio may improve. Likewise Ghani (1997), reported that uniformity ratio of fibres is increased due to removal of short fibres.

Beating action of both machines M1 (Uniclean) and M, (Giant cleaner) negatively affected fibre quality characteristics. However, the performance of Uniclean Bil was exceptionally good for fibre span length and length uniformity ratio. Different intrinsic trash levels have no effect upon fibre span length and length uniformity ratio. Too low and too high speed negative effect upon span length and uniformity ratio. The effect of changing grid bar setting has non-significant effect on span length while the highly significant effect on uniformity ratio.

Sh. Muhammad Nawaz, Babar Shahbaz, Assad Farooq and Muhammad Asif
Department of Fibre Technology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan.

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